Comparative forest histories of the boreal north
Within the scope of the course we have studied and discussed differences and similarities between forest histories of Fennoscandia and North America. Topics we have touched vary from the importance of indigenous people in forming the structure of the forest, different ways of collecting and analysing historical data, transportation problematics to differences in more modern silvicultural ideas in North America and Fennoscandia. Below I present a short summary over some of the different topics that have been discussed during the course.
Ecological and archeological approaches
During this first part of the course we discussed different ways of collecting, analyzing and interpreting different sources of data, and how important it is to take into account the complexity and difficulties associated whit analyzing different types of historical sources. We were also introduced to different technics such as sampling sediments from lakes or mires in order to study pollen distributions, chemical components, fossilized and semi fossilized biological material and traces of charcoal. All of these methods are used to detect and/or date environmental changes or specify when human activity has been present in the area of study. At the end of this session we were fortunate to have a guided tour of the archaeology laboratory at the department of historical, philosophical and religious studies at Umeå University, where Philip Buckland showed us how they use different methods and technics in extracting data from a variety of sample types.
Sami and indigenous North American histories
During the second part of the first day and also during Thursday afternoon we discussed similarities and differences among and between the importance of the Sámi and Native American peoples in forming the forests surrounding them. I would say that the main message during these sessions was that the naive view which previously has dominated forest history research, that indigenous people have had very little influence on their surroundings is in most parts wrong. As Lars Östlund argued, in his talk on the topic on Thursday, the Sámi did not only change the structure of the forest surrounding them, but in some cases even utilized the forests so hard that even today, thousand years later, mountain areas in northern Sweden that previously were forested are still completely treeless. Partly the same goes for North America. Native people formed the structure of their surroundings to improve hunting, gathering and gardening which led to substantial alterations of the forest systems they were living in.
Another important view discussed was how settlers and governments views on which rights the indigenous peoples have to their lands, land use and way of living. We discussed how the transformation of the white pine forests of the Lake States in the US completely altered the local tribes ways of using the forests for hunting, gathering and small scale gardening into forcing local tribes towards a more agricultural way of living. We also discussed why this eventually failed. Similar ideas of changing the way of living for the Sámi have occurred in Sweden. One example is how children were separated from their families and put into Swedish school in order to "Sweedify" them.
One major difference between the Sámi and the native people of North America is they view on land ownership. In US native people have the legal rights the small amounts of land that finally were recognized as theirs. In Sweden the Sámi have never been recognized as owners of the lands they historically have used, instead they have some rights to carry out with the same type of land use that they can prove that they have conducted through historical times, eg. reindeer herding in the coastal forest land during winter.
Another important view discussed was how settlers and governments views on which rights the indigenous peoples have to their lands, land use and way of living. We discussed how the transformation of the white pine forests of the Lake States in the US completely altered the local tribes ways of using the forests for hunting, gathering and small scale gardening into forcing local tribes towards a more agricultural way of living. We also discussed why this eventually failed. Similar ideas of changing the way of living for the Sámi have occurred in Sweden. One example is how children were separated from their families and put into Swedish school in order to "Sweedify" them.
One major difference between the Sámi and the native people of North America is they view on land ownership. In US native people have the legal rights the small amounts of land that finally were recognized as theirs. In Sweden the Sámi have never been recognized as owners of the lands they historically have used, instead they have some rights to carry out with the same type of land use that they can prove that they have conducted through historical times, eg. reindeer herding in the coastal forest land during winter.
North American forestry
Swedish imigrants working in North American forests.
Photo: www.mykil.org |
The history of man's manipulation of North American forests goes way back in time. It is often believed that the landscape that the settlers arrived to in the 16:th and 17:th centuries was pristine and untouched. This however isn't quite true. To begin with these forests had been under quite strong influence by Native Americans before European diseases killed of between 90 and 95% of the native population after initial contacts with Europeans.This left the land "untouched" for a long period of time before European settlers arrived many years later. The Native Americans who lived in the forests of eastern USA affected the structure and composition of their surroundings in substantial ways by for example lighting forest fires improving grazing for game, they practiced small scale gardening, and even more important they hunted predators as well as their prey. In this way grazing patterns throughout the landscape changed depending on the success of hunt in the area during certain periods of time. This in its own turn affected what plants were being grazed, changing competitive relations among plant societies.
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However, the forests that the Europeans found arriving to North America looked very different from the ones that stand there today or maybe even more so have been turned into farmland. In the Great Lakes area this transition started as settlers moved into the forested areas during the mid 19th century. As forest industry picked up momentum the first trees to go were the largest trees eg. white pine (Pinus strobus). In order to try to start up agriculture in
the area, the rest of the forest was often cut, and the timber frontier moved further west, eventually crossing the Great Plains.
For the people taking up agriculture in these areas, often Scandinavian immigrants who had worked in the forests, it was unfortunately not the best area for growing crops. Often the first years of harvest were good but as the soil was drained on nutrients harvests grew smaller. The combination of nutrient poor soils, a harsh climate, and unfavorable loans and leases on their lands forced many farmers to abandon their farms. In place of the abandoned farms forests grew back again. Even though the lands often were reforested the forests that grew up didn't resemble the forests that stood there before the forestry era started. One reason why white pine didn't manage to recolonize the area was the unfortunate introduction of white pine blister rust to America from Europe around year 1900 killing much of the regenerating white pine.
the area, the rest of the forest was often cut, and the timber frontier moved further west, eventually crossing the Great Plains.
For the people taking up agriculture in these areas, often Scandinavian immigrants who had worked in the forests, it was unfortunately not the best area for growing crops. Often the first years of harvest were good but as the soil was drained on nutrients harvests grew smaller. The combination of nutrient poor soils, a harsh climate, and unfavorable loans and leases on their lands forced many farmers to abandon their farms. In place of the abandoned farms forests grew back again. Even though the lands often were reforested the forests that grew up didn't resemble the forests that stood there before the forestry era started. One reason why white pine didn't manage to recolonize the area was the unfortunate introduction of white pine blister rust to America from Europe around year 1900 killing much of the regenerating white pine.
Early Swedish forestry
Even though the Sámi affected the structure and composition of the forest landscapes of boreal Sweden the dramatic simplification of forest structure started with the industrialization of northern Sweden in the mid-19th century. The first assaults on the forest due to potash and tar production were of rather small importance on anything but on the local scale. It was with the large expansion of the timber industry in the middle of the 19th century that the large and rapid changes started to take place. The first trees to go were the large pines, as these were cut in one area the timber frontier moved inland towards the mountains. As time passed dimension criteria were lowered and the forests were gone over a second and eventually a third time. By now the pulp industries demand for wood also increased which also made spruce trees interesting to cut.
In contrast to North America most of the labor force already lived in the area as farmers or farmhands. For these people timber cutting was most commonly a job carried out during winter when other activities on the farm were low. This situation made it possible to keep work force costs at a minimum since the workers were not solemnly dependent on their wages from timber cutting. |
Workers at a sawmill in Jämtland.
Photo: www.mykil.org |
Timber floating and river modification
Timber floating on Ångermanälven during the end of the timber floating era. The last year for timber floating on Ångermanälven was in 1983. The man second closest to the camera is my father in law, Bengt Almroth.
Photo: www.namforsen.se Action at the riverbanks of Ångermanälven in 1982.
Photo: www.murberget.se |
On Thursday morning Erik Törnlund held an interesting and informative presentation about the subject of his doctoral thesis; timber floating in Sweden. Below follows a short summary of this talk.
Since much of the Swedish forests are distant from human population centers at the coast of the Baltic sea, timber had to be transported to the sawmills that were located in these areas. As the watersheds are well distributed in the landscape, with their origins in the mountains in the west flowing south east through the forests towards the sea, they were the most obvious means of transporting large amounts of timber in road less terrain. In order to make the transportation more efficient the rivers were modified to fit timber floating better. Boulders were removed or blown out of the rapids, walls were built to stop logs from getting stuck in bends of the rivers, long stretches of rivers were straightened, splash dams were built, and so on. These activities went on during most part of the timber floating era, from mid-19th century and more or less the following onehundred years. During this time technology advanced and so did the techniques of altering river structure, leading to a more advanced timber transportation system, but at the same time a more simplified ecological structure of the river systems. These alterations have led to many consequences on many species, populations and ecosystems. Migratory fish have had there migration routes destroyed by dams and spawning areas have been ruined. For much of the flora seed dispersal has also been altered due to water regulation. The era of timber floating ended as labor costs rose, hydro electrical power became more important, land transportation networks improved and timber lorries improved in functionality and capacity. The timber floating era ended between the late 1960s to early 1980s in different river systems. Today most work in the watersheds are directed towards restoring systems back to before the timber floating era. Some structures are however left as remainders as cultural heritage. At the end of his talk Erik showed an old documentary from the UK that was produced in the late 1940s. One could say that the film had all the ingredients of a modern blockbuster. It included beautiful scenery, action, and tradgic loss. The only thing missing was a nice love story. It portrayed the work of timber floating in a very much romanticized way. I guess it would be true to claim that this roamnticized view on timber floating still remains in society today. |
Restoration dilemmas
We were fortunate to have Dolly Jørgensen visit us for a discussion session on restoration. The main topic of the discussion was about what is it that we want to restore. As restoration means setting something back to what it once was it becomes important to identify what this something is. Here the contrasts between Euorope and North often become apparent.
In North America one common goal of restoration is setting a system back to a pre-settlement era, which often applies to some sort of natural and pristine state of nature. But as I mentioned earlier Native Americans had already played an important role in forming the landscape on the continent for thousands of years. This therefore complicates the view on what to restore to, if we whish to restore to "untouched" wilderness we might have to go back as far as to before mankind arrived to America. This it turn could mean that we perhaps should reintroduce some kind of mega-fauna that went extinct shortly after man arrived to the continent.
In Europe on the other hand restoration often involves setting back agricultural systems to some earlier stage before the industrialization of agriculture. Which ever of these approaches it is important to clarify ones goals.
In North America one common goal of restoration is setting a system back to a pre-settlement era, which often applies to some sort of natural and pristine state of nature. But as I mentioned earlier Native Americans had already played an important role in forming the landscape on the continent for thousands of years. This therefore complicates the view on what to restore to, if we whish to restore to "untouched" wilderness we might have to go back as far as to before mankind arrived to America. This it turn could mean that we perhaps should reintroduce some kind of mega-fauna that went extinct shortly after man arrived to the continent.
In Europe on the other hand restoration often involves setting back agricultural systems to some earlier stage before the industrialization of agriculture. Which ever of these approaches it is important to clarify ones goals.
Road trip of Västerbotten; an excursion back in time of boreal Sweden
On the last day of an intensive and interesting week we spent a day on a nice excursion to the forests surrounding Umeå. We started out about 4000 years ago looking at rock carvings just downstream of the Norrfors power plant dam. Our guide from the department of archaeology at Umeå university gave us a brief talk on the modern day interpretations of the rock carvings. The site is located just a few kilometers from where Vindelälven and Umeälv join and at the time it was also close to the shore line of the Baltic Sea. This would therefore have made it a good place for people in the area to meet. It is believed that the site of the carvings might have functioned as a market place and/or an area of worship. The most commonly portrayed animal is the elk (Alces alces), which according to the belief system at that time was seen as the mother of earth, which might explain why the elk is the main motive of the area. The detail of the paintings are really astonishing, it is still, 4000 years later, possible to identity the heart, ribs and sex of the animals. One interesting theory to why the carvings are so detailed is that these carvings can have been used as "information folders" when passing on knowledge of the elks anatomy in order to be able to put down the animals in an efficient way during hunting.
From Norrfors the trip continued to Vindeln and Vindelälvens Naturum. Here we looked at some of the structures that still remain in the river. Vindelälvens Naturum lies in a bend of the river where it is easy to imagine that timber coming down the river easily got caught along the shore side. Concrete walls and wooden structures were therefore built in order to direct the main current to the middle of the stream and block of the shores of the river. These structures are still present and one can still see how large impact they have on the water course.
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Remaining structures from the timber floating era, making timber floating more efficient. In the left hand picture the concrete wall still remains quite intact but in the right hand picture the wooden structure has started to deteriorate. Photo: Ruaridh Hägglund
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The next stop on the trip was at Kulbäcksliden just west of Vindeln. Kulbäcksliden is an area that has played an important role in Swedish forest sciences. Kulbäcksliden is one of the first experimental forests run by the Swedish university of agricultural sciences. One extra point of interest is that this was the place of research for one of the first multi-disciplinary works published on forest history by Lars Tirén in 1937. His Skogshistoriska studier i trakten av Degerfors i Västerbotten is well worth a read through for those who can read Swedish. For those who can't, Lars Östlund has published a review paper in English about Lars Tiréns work.
From Kulbäcksliden we continued towards Lycksele and the forest museum at Gamplatsen. Here we had a guided tour of the museum. The exhibition contains a large collection of artifacts, pictures and pieces from the Sámi culture, especially some nice examples of Nils Nilson Skums work. The exibition also shows how forest practice in Sweden has changed during the last 150 years, what equipment was used and how people in the forest lived and what they ate. Besides from the indoor exhibition the museum also holds a large outdoor part showing different types of houses and what they were used for from different periods of the area's history. Amongst many other buildings there are a couple of forest worker lodges where you can go in and see what type of conditions the people working in the forests lived under. There is also an old church and a school building, both well worth a visit. If you grow weary from looking at all of the exhibitions at the museum there is a small forest reserve just next to the museum where you can find respite for a moment surrounded by 150-200 year old pines and plenty of aspen trees rattling their leaves in the wind. All in all the entire museum is well worth a visit and I highly recommend it as an alternative to the zoo located not far from the museum. Unfortunately time passed by just as quickly as usual and it was time to head back to Umeå in time for Harri and Seija to catch their ferry back to Finland.
From Kulbäcksliden we continued towards Lycksele and the forest museum at Gamplatsen. Here we had a guided tour of the museum. The exhibition contains a large collection of artifacts, pictures and pieces from the Sámi culture, especially some nice examples of Nils Nilson Skums work. The exibition also shows how forest practice in Sweden has changed during the last 150 years, what equipment was used and how people in the forest lived and what they ate. Besides from the indoor exhibition the museum also holds a large outdoor part showing different types of houses and what they were used for from different periods of the area's history. Amongst many other buildings there are a couple of forest worker lodges where you can go in and see what type of conditions the people working in the forests lived under. There is also an old church and a school building, both well worth a visit. If you grow weary from looking at all of the exhibitions at the museum there is a small forest reserve just next to the museum where you can find respite for a moment surrounded by 150-200 year old pines and plenty of aspen trees rattling their leaves in the wind. All in all the entire museum is well worth a visit and I highly recommend it as an alternative to the zoo located not far from the museum. Unfortunately time passed by just as quickly as usual and it was time to head back to Umeå in time for Harri and Seija to catch their ferry back to Finland.
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