The decline of timber floating in boreal Sweden
Background
The water ways of northern Sweden have been utilized for timber transportation for a very long time. Even though the main era of timber floating occurred from mid-19th century to the later part of the 20th century, it started out considerably earlier. Timber floating in Sweden has been reported to have occurred already in the Middle Ages. As timber floating became more and more common, conflicts about the right to the water arose. The result of these conflicts forced the Swedish state to react and by 1739 a royal resolution declared that timber floating was given the right of way before many other interests in rivers. Amongst other things the resolution declared that it was forbidden to obstruct the watercourse in such a way that timber floating was not possible.
Even though the importance of the rivers as transportation systems for timber had been acknowledged, the water ways still offered many challenges for timber flaoters with rapids, twists and turns, large boulders and dead trees in the streams which brought down the efficiency of the waterways as transportation routes. In order to make rivers and streams more suited for timber floating tremendous effort and money was spent in clearing the rivers of obstructing obstacles. This work was carried out through more or less all of the timber floating era. To begin with the technology used was, with todays measures, rather simple but just of the rest of society timber floating technology also advanced as time went by. The methods of stream clearing went from cracking large boulders by making fires on and around them and then poring cold water over the boulders, to using dynamite and finally just removing all obstacles in the watercourse with caterpillars. Structures were also built in order to direct the water so that the risk of timber getting caught on river banks or getting caught in back waters was minimized. The ingenuity of the people designing and creating these structures and changes to the water ways was great, and many of the rivers and streams were at the end of the floating era more or less completely changed.
As timber floating was carried out during a rather long period of time and in a really intense manor the ecological consequences to the vast majority of tthe water ways in northern Sweden have been substantial. Some examples are that seed dispersal along the course of the waters has been completely changed as the speed of the water has increased along stretches with rapids, dams have been constructed more or less stopping the transport of seeds and changed how and when the banks of the rivers have been flooded, changing nutrient deposition along the shores. Migratory fish have had their spawning areas destroyed, and dams have hindered their migration to and from their spawning areas.
Even though it is a bit off topic for this work, I find it illustrating to mention one event showing the sometimes tremendous effect that timber floating had on the rivers. One of the most spectacular and dramatic changes to a river system took place as early as 1796. Along Indalsävlen, one of the major river systems in central Sweden, there was a large waterfall, the Gedungsen. This waterfall towered 36 meters and logs floated down it were more often than not snapped like match sticks. As the waterfall was a large obstacle for timber floating it made the forests in the region less obtainable for forestry. However, the forests of these regions were interesting enough for logging to try to do something about the timber floating situation in the river. One suggested idea was to redirect some of the water from the lake upstream of the waterfall into a log flume that reconnected with the river downstream of the waterfall and rapids. During the construction of the flume the spring flood of 1796 was unusually large, and the water managed to make its way through a gravel dam separating the lake upstream of the waterfall from the construction site of the flume. As the water broke through the dam, the dam quickly eroded away and the water course of the river was changed for all future. The lake drained in just a few hours and the one time so impressive waterfall turned completely silent and it is today known as “Döda Fallet” (The Dead Falls). Now days the dried up waterfall is one of the major tourist sites in the area, attracting thousands of people each summer. More information about Döda Fallet and the man behind it can be found at www.dodafallet.nu
By the middle of the 20th century the transformations of the rivers from free flowing, wild “creatures” of nature into streamlined transportations routes was more or less completed. Of course there were always means of improving the water ways even more but the rivers and streams now functioned well for timber floating. On the contrary to what may seem logic the use of rivers for timber floating started to decline from the 1960s. The very last summer of commercial floating in Sweden was done down Klarälven in 1991. Floating on most of the other rivers had already ended by the end of the 70s.
Even though there are many aspects of timber floating in Sweden that I find interesting, I will focus this work on the reasons why timber floating came to such an abrupt end in the later part of the 20th century.
Even though the importance of the rivers as transportation systems for timber had been acknowledged, the water ways still offered many challenges for timber flaoters with rapids, twists and turns, large boulders and dead trees in the streams which brought down the efficiency of the waterways as transportation routes. In order to make rivers and streams more suited for timber floating tremendous effort and money was spent in clearing the rivers of obstructing obstacles. This work was carried out through more or less all of the timber floating era. To begin with the technology used was, with todays measures, rather simple but just of the rest of society timber floating technology also advanced as time went by. The methods of stream clearing went from cracking large boulders by making fires on and around them and then poring cold water over the boulders, to using dynamite and finally just removing all obstacles in the watercourse with caterpillars. Structures were also built in order to direct the water so that the risk of timber getting caught on river banks or getting caught in back waters was minimized. The ingenuity of the people designing and creating these structures and changes to the water ways was great, and many of the rivers and streams were at the end of the floating era more or less completely changed.
As timber floating was carried out during a rather long period of time and in a really intense manor the ecological consequences to the vast majority of tthe water ways in northern Sweden have been substantial. Some examples are that seed dispersal along the course of the waters has been completely changed as the speed of the water has increased along stretches with rapids, dams have been constructed more or less stopping the transport of seeds and changed how and when the banks of the rivers have been flooded, changing nutrient deposition along the shores. Migratory fish have had their spawning areas destroyed, and dams have hindered their migration to and from their spawning areas.
Even though it is a bit off topic for this work, I find it illustrating to mention one event showing the sometimes tremendous effect that timber floating had on the rivers. One of the most spectacular and dramatic changes to a river system took place as early as 1796. Along Indalsävlen, one of the major river systems in central Sweden, there was a large waterfall, the Gedungsen. This waterfall towered 36 meters and logs floated down it were more often than not snapped like match sticks. As the waterfall was a large obstacle for timber floating it made the forests in the region less obtainable for forestry. However, the forests of these regions were interesting enough for logging to try to do something about the timber floating situation in the river. One suggested idea was to redirect some of the water from the lake upstream of the waterfall into a log flume that reconnected with the river downstream of the waterfall and rapids. During the construction of the flume the spring flood of 1796 was unusually large, and the water managed to make its way through a gravel dam separating the lake upstream of the waterfall from the construction site of the flume. As the water broke through the dam, the dam quickly eroded away and the water course of the river was changed for all future. The lake drained in just a few hours and the one time so impressive waterfall turned completely silent and it is today known as “Döda Fallet” (The Dead Falls). Now days the dried up waterfall is one of the major tourist sites in the area, attracting thousands of people each summer. More information about Döda Fallet and the man behind it can be found at www.dodafallet.nu
By the middle of the 20th century the transformations of the rivers from free flowing, wild “creatures” of nature into streamlined transportations routes was more or less completed. Of course there were always means of improving the water ways even more but the rivers and streams now functioned well for timber floating. On the contrary to what may seem logic the use of rivers for timber floating started to decline from the 1960s. The very last summer of commercial floating in Sweden was done down Klarälven in 1991. Floating on most of the other rivers had already ended by the end of the 70s.
Even though there are many aspects of timber floating in Sweden that I find interesting, I will focus this work on the reasons why timber floating came to such an abrupt end in the later part of the 20th century.
Reasons behind the decline
It is often believed that the main reason for the drastic decline in timber floating during the second half of the 20th century was due to the shift towards land based timber transportation with trucks. This is of course one of the reasons, but there are other reasons as well. Some of them were increasing labor costs, construction of hydroelectric power plants, and the composition of timber assortments
Labor costs
At the beginning of the timber floating era there was no shortage in labor. The forested areas were populated by settlers who lived in small farms which were scattered throughout the countryside and sometimes gathered together in small villages. All means of extra income to the settlers and their farmhands were welcome and they often worked with timber floating during a short period in spring as the spring flood made floating possible on the smaller tributaries. As there wasn’t that much other work offered the men involved in timber floating were often satisfied with the small wages they received. It even occurred that different villages competed to get the floating contract from the forest companies, and the means of competition was often offering to do the same job for less money. This situation lasted for quite some time, but at the beginning of the 20thcentury workers began to organize themselves. The harsh economic conditions during the 1920s and 30s, with high numbers of unemployment led to many conflicts over working conditions
and unemployment throughout Europe, and this affected the timber floaters as well. Even though there were many conflicts over wages not much happened with the timber floaters wages during this period. There were still many people who were without work and agreed to work for low wages.
It was first after the Second World War that things started to change rapidly. Going from high abundances of people without work in the inland regions to the opposite situation, industries needed many employees after the Second World War. At the same time a change in the agrarian society took place; people were starting to leave the countryside for year around jobs in the industries at the coastal areas, leaving the forested areas with a shortage in labor. As one of the main cost for timber floating already was the cost for labor this part of the costs grew rapidly as the timber floating business had to compete with other industries. In a 20 year period, between mid-1930s to mid-1950s wages for timber floaters nearly doubled.
In order to minimize the effects of higher labor costs the timber floating industry made great efforts in trying to rationalize timber floating. The most costly parts of timber floating was that done in the smaller streams and tributaries where small amounts of timber were floated but this type of floating needed much labor per volume of floated logs. Therefore timber floating on the small streams was the first to go. Instead trucks were used to transport logs to the main rivers where floating still was carried out.
and unemployment throughout Europe, and this affected the timber floaters as well. Even though there were many conflicts over wages not much happened with the timber floaters wages during this period. There were still many people who were without work and agreed to work for low wages.
It was first after the Second World War that things started to change rapidly. Going from high abundances of people without work in the inland regions to the opposite situation, industries needed many employees after the Second World War. At the same time a change in the agrarian society took place; people were starting to leave the countryside for year around jobs in the industries at the coastal areas, leaving the forested areas with a shortage in labor. As one of the main cost for timber floating already was the cost for labor this part of the costs grew rapidly as the timber floating business had to compete with other industries. In a 20 year period, between mid-1930s to mid-1950s wages for timber floaters nearly doubled.
In order to minimize the effects of higher labor costs the timber floating industry made great efforts in trying to rationalize timber floating. The most costly parts of timber floating was that done in the smaller streams and tributaries where small amounts of timber were floated but this type of floating needed much labor per volume of floated logs. Therefore timber floating on the small streams was the first to go. Instead trucks were used to transport logs to the main rivers where floating still was carried out.
Hydroelectric power plants
Even though there was some competition for water between power production and timber floating this was not the primary source of conflict between the two industries. It was quite often the same company that owned the saw mills and power plants, reducing tension between the two uses of the water. Another factor putting competition for water more or less out off play was legislation that had been written to safe guard the one time so important timber floating industry. This legislation guaranteed that the power plants let some of “their” water go to facilitate timber floating down log flumes that were built to guarantee timber safe passage around dams and turbines.
Instead, it was rather the competition for labor that was the primary area of competition. Power plant construction could offer year around employment which timber floating in most cases could not. Other advantages were better salary as construction workers at power plant sites than as timber floaters and that work was at the same place for the continuation of the construction period. There was no longer need to stay in primitive huts along the waterways; instead the workers could live in decent lodging near the construction site.
Instead, it was rather the competition for labor that was the primary area of competition. Power plant construction could offer year around employment which timber floating in most cases could not. Other advantages were better salary as construction workers at power plant sites than as timber floaters and that work was at the same place for the continuation of the construction period. There was no longer need to stay in primitive huts along the waterways; instead the workers could live in decent lodging near the construction site.
Timber assortment
At the beginning of the timber floating era the trees floated down the river were large pines that were well suited for floating. They were large enough to not get soaked and sink during their journey down the rivers. There was no need to take away the bark before putting them in the water. It was even quite common to float sawed timber as well. But as time passed ant forests had been cut over more than once timber dimensions grew smaller. From the turn of the century and onward pulp industry grew more important as well. Pulp industry was interested in both pine and spruce, and the dimension of the trees were not as important as for sawmills. Smaller tree dimensions increase the risk of sinking since they get soaked faster. To fight the issue of sinking bark was removed from the timber prior to floating, letting the timber dry out more, increasing buoyancy. Initially this was done by hand at the site of cutting by the loggers. But as the struggle for efficiency became more important from the 50s and on bark removal was moved from the cutting site to the site were the logs were put into the water, instead of being done manually machines were constructed to remove the bark. In order to make bark removal more efficient automated bark removal became more usual. Even though costly efforts were made to reduce risk of sinking logs approximately 3% of all timber floated sank. Another issue with the reduced size in timber is that the price for handling the same amount of volume rises due to that more logs have to be handled. This also reduced the efficiency of floating.
Road construction and improving vehicles
At the turn of the century most of the land transportation in boreal Sweden was conducted along small and windy forest paths or at its best along roads in poor condition. Cars, trucks and busses were not common in these areas, and the few that were in the area were not suitable for timber transportation. From the Second World War and on the infrastructure of roads grew substantially and the quality of vehicles improved all the time. By the 60s the one time so dominating timber floating industry had lost ground to land based transportation. One of the major advantages for road transportation was that timber could be delivered more rapidly to sawmills and pulp industries than going by water. Timber could be cut almost any time of year and delivered shortly thereafter. Planning became easier and did not have to be done as far ahead as before; the forest industry therefore became more flexible to market changes.
The end
By the beginning of the 1980s the above mentioned factors had finally led to that timber floating was no longer an interesting way of transporting timber. Floating on many of the rivers had seized by then. The last summer for timber floating for some of the rivers were;
Vindelälven – 1976; Umeälven – 1980; Ångermanälven – 1982; Piteälven – 1984; Klarälven 1991.
Today many streams and rapids have been restored into a condition that is supposed to reassemble the structure of the water ways prior to timber floating. However, some structures from the timber floating era still remain as reminders of an industrial enterprise that was one of the most important parts of turning Sweden into a modern industrial country. A good place to have a look at some of these structures is at Vindelns Naturum just by the river in Vindeln.
Vindelälven – 1976; Umeälven – 1980; Ångermanälven – 1982; Piteälven – 1984; Klarälven 1991.
Today many streams and rapids have been restored into a condition that is supposed to reassemble the structure of the water ways prior to timber floating. However, some structures from the timber floating era still remain as reminders of an industrial enterprise that was one of the most important parts of turning Sweden into a modern industrial country. A good place to have a look at some of these structures is at Vindelns Naturum just by the river in Vindeln.
References and recommended reading
Henriksson, S.-Å., 2004, Flottning: En bok om flottning och flottare i mellersta Norrland, S.-Å., Henriksson, Sollefteå
Törnlund, E., & Östlund, L., 2000, Flottning: Vattendragen, arbetet, berättelserna, Nordiska museets förlag, Stockholm
Törnlund, E., & Östlund, L., 2002, Floating timber in northern Sweden: The construction of floatways and transformation of rivers. Environment and History, 8(1), 85-106.
Törnlund, E.,& Östlund, L., 2006, Mobility without wheels: The economy and ecology of timber floating in Sweden, 1850-1980. The Journal of Transport History, 27(1), 48-70
Törnlund, E., & Östlund, L., 2000, Flottning: Vattendragen, arbetet, berättelserna, Nordiska museets förlag, Stockholm
Törnlund, E., & Östlund, L., 2002, Floating timber in northern Sweden: The construction of floatways and transformation of rivers. Environment and History, 8(1), 85-106.
Törnlund, E.,& Östlund, L., 2006, Mobility without wheels: The economy and ecology of timber floating in Sweden, 1850-1980. The Journal of Transport History, 27(1), 48-70